|
PART 1
PART 2
|
PART 3
| |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
APA stands for the American Psychological Assocation. The APA publishes a book called,The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Assocation. This 300-page book is a critical reference for students who are writing research papers. Because many researchers use APA format for preparing papers for publication, many universities have adopted the APA guidelines for all academic papers. If you intend on submitting a paper for publication within a journal, you must follow the APA guidelines strictly. In our workshop, we will apply basic APA guidelines as a guide for preparing our practice papers & as a guide for your future research papers. By an APA-style paper, we mean one that is highly structured and based on empirical (statistical) research, as well as library research. IT IS A PAPER THAT IS DEFINITELY NOT AN OPINION PAPER & GENERALLY NOT "ARTISTIC". How is APA Style is different from other styles of writing? APA style is unlike other forms of writing that encourage more creativity and variation in language. APA style often involves writing according to a "formula" of sorts. Once you learn the formula, you can master APA style. Adhering strictly to formatting rules, keeping sentence structure simple, and maintaining parallel structure when reporting study details and results helps to make your writing clear. The APA manual mainly focuses on two issues:
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
APA SAMPLE PAPERS |
WRITING THE DRAFT(S) |
There really is no perfect formula for writing a paper, but there are
some stages that most experienced writers
go through before a reader sees the finished paper.
Writing is a process -- a process of writing and rewriting.
A paper you're planning to submit to your instructor for grading should
be constantly in flux.
The final product should be one that has gone through at least
four of these stages:
* Stage 1 - Prewriting and Discovery
Decide on your topic, collect your thoughts, brainstorm, gather information,
and then "free write" --
write whatever comes to your mind without regard for correctness of expression.
Remember, this version is for your eyes only.
Spend about 15% of your writing time on this stage.
* Stage 2 - Drafting
Now, it's time to develop a sloppy draft from your prewriting and free writing
notes. Again, ignore the conventions of writing,
spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc. Talk on paper.
Spend about 20% of your writing time on this stage.
* Stage 3 - Writing
Now, you're ready to write your paper. Organize the information from your
sloppy rough draft:
write your introduction and state a thesis,
format the paper, and develop your thesis with details in several body paragraphs.
This is your first draft.
Spend about 30% of your writing time on this part.
* Stage 4 - Rewriting and Editing
Read your first draft yourself. Check this draft for clarity, continuity
(transitions), coherence, unity, focus, logic, and relevant details.
Fine tune your paper by making changes in word usage, punctuation, grammar,
etc.
Also, you shouldn't be the only person who reads your paper, so ask a competent
writer to give you some input.
You could also take your paper to a Writing Lab Paper Reader for assistance.
Spend about 30% of your writing time on this part.
* Step 5 - Proofread
After you and someone else have carefully edited the first draft, proofread
your paper so that it is ready for publication or presentation:
check for typos and other errors you didn't find in the editing process.
Spend about 5% of your writing time on this stage.
* Step 6 - Setting It Down
Leave your finished paperalone to "simmer" for a day or two. Then revisitb
it.
You will be amazed at what you catch. Read and revise again before submitting.
NOTE: As you write, you may move back and forth between
stages, go in a slightly different order and skip some stages. That's normal!
BASIC APA FORMAT |
LINKS TO FREE APA MS WORD TEMPLATES |
|
OUTLINING |
A major
first step in the writing process is the making of a map to guide you through
the task,
thereas offering your readers a better chance of understanding where you
are going and what you are trying to say.
If the writer hasn't drawn a clear map before the text is written,
there's a good chance that the reader will become disorganized and repetitive.
Maps come in several
styles, and the one you select will depend on your needs as the writer and
the goals for the text.
There are several styles of maps and clusters. We're going
to look at my favorite technique,
bubble-clustering, followed by converting it to a "text outline".
When you "map," or "cluster,"
you are creating a set of interlinking "circles" or bubbles to
identify the ideas or topics you are going to address.
Here is one student's cluster for an essay which describes a time when this
student was made to feel "dum":
In the center the student has written a short phrase - A time when I was made to feel stupid - that summarizes the general direction for the essay. This center bubble can contain the idea of a writing assignment, your central question or topic, or--if you have no idea where you are going--simply a question mark.
Surrounding this center bubble are other bubbles that connect to your central idea. When you develop a cluster the idea is to let loose, come up with any example or topic related to that center bubble. When you make a cluster, try not to immediately ignore any possibility. Try to approach the cluster-making process much like the freewriting process and then worry later about which bubbles you will actually develop for your essay.
In this case, the student has developed sub-bubbles that identify Why feeling stupid hurts; and Emotions felt; and How did I feel?; and English class. Then, for each of these sub-bubbles, they added sub-sub-bubbles which break these topics down into even smaller units. To the bubble "How did I feel?" for example, are attached bubbles for Stupid, Embarrassed and Humiliated.
A cluster allows you to see all of the ideas for your essay at once. You can see and study the overall connectivness of your ideas and begin to imagine an order for them before you write your essay. When you've roughed out your cluster, you can pull back, take a look, and then add new bubbles or edit or erase content bubbles which you don't want to include. (Note in the example the writer has crossed out the Sad bubble connected to Emotions felt.) Then you can study your cluster and number the bubbles in the order you intend to develop them in your essay. In the example, the writer decided to describe the event first (English Class), then describe how they felt (How did I feel?) followed by descriptions of the Emotions felt, and to conclude with a larger discussion of why these situations are painful (Why feeling stupid hurts). By numbering the bubbles in this way, the writer has created an outline for their essay.
Let's look at another cluster, designed this time to guide the student through an essay that examines his readiness for college. Note that this one is much more complex than the first one. Study the bubbles and think about what recommendations you would make for deletions and additions:
Note that each of the bubbles has received a number that represents its order in the essay. According to this cluster, the student will begin by telling us that learning skills are more important than a degree. This will be followed by a discussion of how their education will help in everything they do - work...personal relationships. Notice, too, that the writer has numbered these bubbles 1A and 1B respectively, and that several of the other bubble areas are broken down in this way. Any system will do as long as you can make sense of it when it comes time to write.
Finally, note the crossed-out bubbles in the central-right section of the cluster. After pulling back and examining the cluster, the student has decided that these thoughts are secondary tothe main point of the essay.
When your cluster becomes unruly, complicated, or too cluttered for you to organize, it often helps to convert the cluster into an outline. If you need to, simply write down the contents of the bubbles in list form on a separate piece of paper and THEN number the items in the order you wish to develop them.
BACK TO TOP
HERE'S A GREAT WEB SITE THAT EXPLAINS MORE ON CLUSTERING....
Research Paper Terminology |
By becoming familiar with the following words, the writer can avoid many errors and in their research papers.
Citation or Cite – See Parenthetical Documentation.
Direct Quote - single word, sentence, or an entire paragraph, written word from word from a text, enclosed in quotation marks and cited.
Documentation – Giving credit to the original author for his ideas by citing the author within the paper and on the Works Cited page.
Paraphrasing
– Using your own words to restate the author’s ideas, but still giving credit
to the original author.
Parenthetical
Documentation
– Information found within a paragraph indicating to the reader the works
used and where in thework the material was found. The source information,
typically the author’s last name, a single space, and the page number, is
placed within the parentheses.
Plagiarism – The act of presenting someone else’s ideas as your own.
Primary Source – These sources include interviews, observations, questionnaires, and so on. The researcher is personally involved in gathering facts, finding examples, and forming ideas.
Research Paper
– Carefully planned essays that have been thoroughly investigated, analyzed,
and written to share newinformation or prove a point. Research papers are
different from other essays because of the amount of information gathered
and used in the reading.
Secondary
Source – Something
that has been quoted in another research or technical paper. It is
information that has been gathered before.
Title Page – A research paper does not need a title page. Instead, see directions on Format Requirements.
Website – A URL (uniform resource locator) location on the World Wide Web where information for a research paper can be found.
Works Cited – A listing of all the sources cited in the text (also referred to as a bibliography).
APA SUGGESTIONS & TIPS |
REMEMBER:
• Present your topic as if it were a court case you are trying to
prove. Cite evidence (articles) to prove your case.
• Do not introduce any ideas that you cannot back up with evidence
from articles.
• In general, paraphrase
(state the same ideas in your own words) what the author said rather than
citing a direct quote. Discuss what the author said, rather than just quoting
him/her.
Exceptions: If the author states something in such
a powerful way, that rephrasing it would lose meaning. If you are quoting
a leading authority and want to directly quote this individual in order
to add validity to your paper.
• Do not be “cute” as you write. This is a college-level
research paper. Write like a researcher.
Inappropriate Research & Citation Resources |
Conducting Background Research Oline
Online Research & Our Chapman Library |
REMEMBER:
You will be asked to provide your Chapman Username and Password
when attempting
to enter our subscription library resources such as indexes, databases,
online encyclopedias,
online dictionaries, and online full - text catalogs.
To login you must enter your Username, which is the first part of your Chapman
University email address,
and your email password.
If you have questions, please contact the Academic Help Desk at (714)
997 - 6600
or the University College Library Assistant at (800) 344 - 5756, ext. 1.
For example:
Username: dela1304
Password: 123456
Common Correction Symbols |
| abbr | abbreviation used incorrectly |
| adj | incorrect use of adjective (quick for quickly, for instance) |
| adv | incorrect adverb use |
| apos | apostrophe omission |
| no apos | apostrophe error |
| awk | awkward construction |
| cap | word should be capitalized |
| no cap / lc | word should not be capitalized |
| coh | incoherent |
| cs | comma splice (a comma separating two sentences) |
| clich | ineffective/inappropriate use of cliches |
| coord | faulty coordination |
| dm | dangling modifier |
| dev | inadequately developed |
| doc | incorrect/inadequate documentation |
| fc | faulty comparison (more friendlier, for instance) |
| frag | sentence fragment |
| inf | language too informal (colloquial, slang, dialect) |
| ital | should be italicized or underlined |
| no ital | delete italics or underlining |
| log | illogical statement |
| mm | misplaced modifier |
| ms | incorrect manuscript form |
| num | incorrect use of numbers |
| p | punctuation omission* |
| pp | punctuation error* |
| para | new paragraph |
| no para | no new paragraph |
| pron | incorrect pronoun case (between you and I for between you and me, for instance) |
| pn arg | pronoun and antecedent agreement |
| pn ref | incorrect pronoun reference |
| pv | incorrect use of second person point of view |
| // | faulty parallelism |
| rep | needless repetition |
| rev | revise |
| run-on | run-on or fused sentence (two sentences not separated by a period or semicolon) |
| s-v agr | subject and verb disagreement |
| shift | shift in voice or person |
| sl | inappropriate use or overuse of slang |
| sp | mispelling |
| t | incorrect tense |
| v | incorrect verb form |
| ww | wrong word (effect for affect, for instance) |
| wordy | wordiness |
| * Paper readers usually insert these marks when they are omitted and delete them when they are overused: | |
| period | |
| question mark | |
| exclamation point | |
| comma | |
| semicolon | |
| colon | |
| apostrophe | |
| quotation marks | |
| hyphen | |
| dash | |
| parentheses | |
| brackets | |
| slash | |
| ellipses | |
Plagiarism |
* Failing to give proper credit to sources used in papers and projects, even if you don't use direct quotes!
CLICK HERE TO READ AN ARTICLE THAT CLEARLY EXPLAINS PLAGIARISM... QUOTES & PARAPHRASING: |
"When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another work, authors are not required to provide a location reference. Nevertheless, authors are encouraged to do so, especially when it would help an interested reader locate the relevant passage. . . ." (Publication Manual, 2001, p. 121) Note that the preceeding quote is 39 words long; so it is included in the text of the paper and is enclosed by quotation marks.
ACTIVE VS. PASSICE VOICE + 1ST VS. THIRD PERSON: |
In the past, scientific writing was almost totally passive voice. To an
extent, it might have seemed that researchers weren't actively doing anything,
but evidence just sort of fell out of the sky into their laps: "It was found
that ..." In part, such writing may have been an attempt to avoid using
the first person pronoun (either because of modesty or to emphasize the
impartiality of data collection).
Now it is much more acceptable to write in the active voice, though researchers
still tend to avoid the first person singular pronoun:
"We found that..." or "Researchers found that..."
Nonetheless, the passive voice remains much more acceptable in scientific
writing than in other areas of writing. (especially when you want to focus
on the research rather than the researcher). You can learn more about using
the active vs. passive voice in the APA Publication Manual .
When you write in APA style, you rarely use first person voice ("I
studied..."). This is rarely done in published journals and when it
does occur, it's only done by very advanced scholars. Unless you are very
skilled at APA writing, you should use the third person or passive voice
constructions when writing in APA style ("The study showed...")
unless you are co-authoring a paper with at least one other person,
in which case you can use "we." ("Our findings included...")
In general, you should emphasize the research and not the researcher(s)
(you).
AVOIDING LANGUAGE BIAS... |
NUMBERS & DATES |
WRITING NUMBERS WITHIN TEXT:
Example: The New York Times reported a shift in
the number of adults returning to school.
When writing a number in the text numbers 1-9 should be written out, all
other numbers are typically written as numbers -
however, if you are noting more than one number in a sentence keep the numerical
style consistent.
Example: The class will be comparing 7 herbivores against 15 carnivores.
Example:
She will show the class pictures of seven different types of herbivores.
Commas in Numbers:
Use Commas between groups of three digits in figures of 1,000 or more
(exceptions: temperature, page#, serial #'s, binary digits, numbers to the
right of a decimal: 4,900.0744)
OTHER CRITICAL
TIPS:
* All measurement reporting is listed in metric units. In other words, use
centimeters and meters rather than inches and feet.
(tip: the APA manual has conversion info on pg. 135.)
* The numbers zero through nine are spelled out (except when it is a table
or figure number, or a metric measurement, etc.).
The numbers 10 and above are written as numbers.
* Capitalize nouns followed by numerals or letters that denote a specific
place in a numbered series.
* Spell out any number when it is the first thing in a sentence. For example,
the sentence 34 students were used., is not appropriate and should read
Thirty-four students were used.
* Try to be consistent with number formats. For example,if you are listing
a series of related numbers, they should all be presented with the same
number of decimal places.
WRITING OUT DATES:
Always write out a date in an
academic paper, either in text or on a title page. When writing a date within
the text, insert a comma after the year.
If you are only referring to the month and year no comma is needed after
the year.
Example: October 21, 2002
Example: On October 21, 2002, the graduates will present their papers to the class.
Example: In October, 2002 the
graduates will present their papers to the class.
USING PERCENTAGE (%)
SYMBOLS:
Use the %
symbol for percent only when it is preceded by a numeral.
Use the word percentage
when a number is not given.
Example 1: The researcher discovered that 18%
of the rats died as a result of the test.
Example 2: Ford determined the percentage
of rats had no correlation to the overall fatality rate.
ABBREVIATIONS:
The use of abbreviations is acceptable
if it is a commonly use abbreviation, such as the states, IQ, AIDS,
HIV, ESP, REM.
Do not use a period afterward. (unless it is an end of a sentence &
donot use two in this case!
USING CONTRACTIONS:
Simple: DO NOT! Contractions
are not acceptable in formal research writing. (Don't , won't, could'nt).
BACK TO TOP
OTHER COMMON GRAMMER ERRORS: |
WASTED
PHRASES:
“Wasted Phrases” are phrases that add nothing to the meaning
of your sentence, they simply take up space and generate unneeded rambling.
Avoid or minimize phrases such as: as it were, thus, it can be seen that,
etc.
VERY:
The word “very” is one of the most overused words in the English
language. Search for other words such as: significantly, substantially,
notably, largely, remarkably, etc.
INCONSISTENT VERB TENSES:
Be careful to use a verb tense consistently throughout a sentence. For example,
if using past tense, keep with past tense throughout the sentence and use
past perfect tense if needed.
Example of inconsistent verb tenses: The delegates said that they are planning to visit the White House.
Problem: The verb “said” (in the main clause) is past tense. The verb in the subordinate clause “are planning” should also be in past tense.
Solution: The delegates said that they planned to visit the White House.
Past perfect tense: If the action of the dependent clause was completed before the action in the main clause use past perfect tense in the dependent clause.
Example: The delegates said that they had planned to visit the White House.
ITS, IT’S:
An apostrophe is used to identify
possession of a noun. However, the possessive of “it” IS NOT
“it’s” -- the correct possessive use of it - is “its”.
“It’s” means - “it is”.
Correct use of “Its”: The house on the corner is in need of repair, its roof is caving in.
Correct use of “It’s”:
This is my house, it’s my favorite location to spend my weekends.
COMMAS:
Commas are commonly misplaced,
or not used at all. There are several general rules to keep in mind when
using commas:
Signal a pause between the introductory element of a sentence and the main part of the sentence.
Example: Accordingly, I provided my instructor with my annotations.
Use a comma and conjunction or transitional expression to join two independent sentences. (This is also used to fix run-on sentences.)
Example: I am unable to attend the meeting tonight, however I will attend the meeting next Monday.
Use a comma to separate items listed in a series.
Example: The most common vacation destinations in the United States are Florida, California, Colorado, and Hawaii.
Example: We can eat sandwiches,
pizza, or tacos.
COLON USE:
The most common use for a colon
is to connect what precedes it with what follows it.
Example: The students were asked
to bring the following supplies to class: ruler, paper, pencils, and a notebook.
PERIODS & SEMI-COLONS:
Use a semi-colon or a period
to separate two complete sentences.
Example: It is our intention to provide the class with an analysis on the
effects of prolonged exposure to the sun. Each category of our analysis
will list the medical risks associated with repeated sunburns and tanning.
Use a semi-colon to separate independent clauses.
Example: I am going to attend the meeting; I suggest you do too.
Use a period to end an abbreviation (except for acronyms).
Examples:
Incorporated Inc.
versus vs.
Monday Mon.
gallon gal.
If the sentence ends with an abbreviation, do not use an additional period.
Example: For more information
please contact John Smith, D.D.S.
QUOTATION MARKS:
Commas and periods go inside quotation marks, semicolons and colons go outside,
and question marks and explanation marks go either on the inside or outside
depending on the meaning of the statement. Single quotation marks are used
to indicate a quotation within a quotation.
Examples:
The instructor asked the class, “What President of the United States said ‘Whether you think that you can, or that you can't, you are usually right’?"
The instructor asked the class, “Have you finished reading chapter
five?”
The instructor stated, “This class is about to embark on an incredible
journey into American literature.”
USE OF ITALICS
WITHIN THE TEXT:
Use italics within your text when you are typing the title of something
that can stand alone. Use italics when you want to emphasize a certain word.
Italics are also used to indicate foreign words, journals, magazines, plays,
television shows, artwork, poems, and pamphlets.
Example: We are writing a book review on John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men.
RUN ON SENTENCES:
A run on sentence is a sentence
that has at least two independent clauses - or two parts that can stand
alone. In a run on sentence the two (or more) independent clauses have been
run together without being connected or broken into a separate sentence.
There are many types of run on sentences. Most may be fixed by inserting
a comma to connect two independent clauses, and a conjunction (and, for,
so, yet) or by using a transitional expression such as however, therefore,
etc.
Example of a run-on sentence:
The series of books written by F. Scott Fitzgerald contain a lot of interesting characters, you should read about all of them.
Correct sentence:
The series of books written by F. Scott Fitzgerald contain a lot of interesting characters. I recommend you read about all of them.
or
The series of books written by F. Scott Fitzgerald contain a lot of interesting characters; you should read about all of them.
Example of a run-on sentence:
I did not know which restaurant I wanted to eat at I let my friend decide where to go.
Correct sentence:
I did not know which restaurant
I wanted to eat at, so I let my friend decide.
FRAGMENTS / INCOMPLETE
SENTENCES:
Incomplete sentences are sentences
that contain words that create the subject of a sentence, but do not create
a predicate.
Example of an incomplete sentence:
When the humidity rises.
Example of a complete sentence:
When the humidity is high, the
heat index rises.
DANGLING MODIFIER:
A dangling modifier is a phrase
or clause that modifies a word it could not ‘logically’ modify.
The most common dangling modifier is “hopefully”.
Example of dangling modifier using ‘hopefully’:
Hopefully, the finished assignment will be a success.
Correct use of ‘hopefully’:
I hope the finished assignment will be a success.
* Note that it does not make
sense for an assignment to ‘hopeful’, therefore the sentence
needs to be fixed to indicate who is hopeful.
DASHES & HYPHENS:
A dash is used to separate items in a sentence and a hyphen is used to link
them. A dash is longer than a hyphen.
Example of a dash: Let’s go see the dolphins - no, let’s go eat lunch first.
Example of a hyphen: The water
was ice-cold, so we decided not to go swimming.
ACCEPT, EXCEPT:
To accept is to receive. Except may be either a preposition or a verb. Used
as a verb except means to make an exception of.
Example of "accept": I accept your apology.
Example of "except" as a verb: We except you from your duty.
Example of "except"
as a preposition: Everyone is present except John.
APA CHECKLIST: |
•
Is my paper type double-spaced?
• Have I met all the requirements of my instructor?
• Do I have a title page?
• Do I have an abstract page?
• Do I have a references page?
• Have I organized the body of my paper with appropriate heading and
sub-headings?
• Have I proofed for spelling and grammar?
• Have I correctly referenced each quote and resource using the author's
last name and year of publication in parenthesis?
• Have I stayed consistent using the APA style throughout the entire
paper?
• Do I have a clear thesis statement?
• Does my research paper follow my thesis statement?
• Have I used enough detail and support?
More Info on APA Writing... |
 |
A Guide for Writing Research Papers based on Styles Recommended
by The APA (Capital Community College) This is an outstanding guide to writing research papers based on APA. |
|
Citing
Electronic Sources Read about how to cite electronic (online) sources, authored by the APA. As both the Web and the APA grow, ways of citing online sources change. |
|
APA
Style - APA Home Page Visit the official APA style page of the APA. |
|
FOR GEEKS & TEACHERS : Highlights of Changes in the 5th Edition of the APA Style Manual Want a quick overview of what is changed in the 5th Edition of the APA Style Manual? Just check out this page offered by the APA. |
BACK
TO TOP
Suzanne Delahanty M.A.
2007 ©